Lago’s Motiveless Malignancy

S. T. Coleridge regarded Iago as â€Å"A being next to the devil, only not quite the devil whose explanatory soliloquies were ‘the motive hunting of motiveless malignity’†. From your reading so far, to what extent do you agree with this view? Iago is one of Shakespeare’s most compelling and sophisticated villain. He is considered as such because of the trust that Othello puts in him and which he betrays while maintaining his reputation of an honest and reliable man.Shakespeare presents Iago as cynical, quick witted and opportunistic, therefore having all qualities of stage villains in revenge tragedies. He is eaten up by jealousy and hatred, and this leads him to seek ways to destroy Othello by poisoning his mind against Desdemona. Iago is a master in pretending and destroying. Most of the times we see that he enjoys having an audience, because we see that he has a lot of soliloquies where he outlines his plot very clearly. However he is rather mysterious e specially when he refuses to speak at the end of the play.In fact, it is this silence that led to Coleridge concluding that he has a â€Å"motiveless malignity†. The same critic also viewed Iago as â€Å"being next to the devil†. Here Iago is no longer considered as the epitome of evil, but he is seen as an example of an emotionally limited man, driven by jealousy. Most other Shakespearean characters do bad things in order to achieve a particular goal. Often the motive is ambition as in Macbeth or revenge, as in Hamlet. The thing about Iago is that we really never know for certain why Iago acts In this way.However, many people think that the possible motive for Iago’s actions is envy, particularly towards Desdemona, Cassio and Othello. Iago sees them as more noble, generous and in the case of Cassio, more handsome than he is. This is reflected in the line when he says: â€Å"He hath a daily beauty in his life that makes me ugly†. In addition, Iago suspect s his wife, Emilia, of infidelity with Cassio. Iago’s relationship with Roderigo is driven by callous greed, and when his â€Å"purse† becomes a dangerous inconvenience, he kills him.His motives for destroying Othello’s happiness are driven by negative impulses. Iago holds a grudge against Othello for promoting Cassio instead of him. Apart from normal jealousy, Iago is also eaten uo with sexual jealousy. He hates Othello because he suspects that the general has â€Å"twixt my sheets .. done my office†. And because of this paranoia, Iago determines to use the goodness of Othello’s wife, Desdemona to â€Å"enmesh them all†. Another motive, for Iago to hate Othello is racism.His low opinion of him is very clear in many of his speeches, especially in the way that he mentions him. Iago wants to degrade those that he despises. Iago is self-contained, egotistical and confident. These qualities help him in his treacherous quest. He is also very succ essful because he is able to play several roles convincingly, and is able to adapt his style to suit any occasion. Iago only reveals his true nature in his soliloquies. And this is why it is difficult for us to see the real motive beneath the appearance that he creates to cover his true self.

Explain the purpose of the main characters, minor characters and the chorus in Antigone. (30 marks) Essay

All characters which feature in Sophocles’ play Antigone play an important role somehow; mainly conveying a certain moral or theme. The major characters portray the main themes such as loyalty, whilst some of the minor characters and the chorus explore the theme of prophecy and fate. Antigone is one of/the main character in the play named after herself. However it is debatable whether she is the main character due to the fact that the majority of the play revolves around Creon and his actions, and end in him being alone whilst Antigone has died. Throughout the play she defines the loyalty to the Gods rather than civil obedience- and is the only character to do so. Immediately, Antigone is portrayed by Sophocles as a defiant and important character due to the fact that she is located outside the palace, a place where a Greek woman would not be found unescorted by a male presence. An ancient Greek audience would automatically assume that Antigone and her sister Ismene who is also outside with her were poor, prostitutes or slaves, yet we quickly find out she is neither, leaving us with the first impressions that Antigone is willing to defy the rules and does not fit normal woman conventions in the ancient Greek era. The fact that Creon is clearly astounded when he sees Antigone is responsible for the burial of Polynices against his will clearly shows to the reader that it is unusual for the average woman in ancient Greek society to break from the norms and defy the rules, which is supported by the fact that Athenian men believed that the best women were the ones that were heard the least. The quote â€Å"You bring this woman†¦?† (Line 375); which is said to the Sentry after bringing Antigone before Creon; shows that Creon is confused that it is a woman that has had the bravery to go against the laws he had set. Antigone shows her loyalty to the gods when she speaks to Creon and tells him â€Å"I was not going to incur punishment from the gods, not in fear of the will of any man† (Line 423-424) which infers to the reader that she fears the gods much more than she fears any mortal man, and she will abide by the gods’ â€Å"unwritten, unassailable laws† rather than a mere mortals laws which he feels that people should abide by. This shows a clear devotion to the gods as she is giving herself up and admits to the crimes against the state, yet is not taken back by the promise of death as she knows that what she has done is for the gods’ satisfaction. In addition, we see that Antigone is extremely loyal to her family and is willing to sacrifice her life for the good of her brother, as the ancient Greeks believed that if you did not receive the correct burial then you would roam the afterlife forever and never be in peace (it was also seen as very disrespectful towards the dead and the family of the dead). We see this fierce loyalty that Antigone feels towards her family as she tells Ismene; just before she says she wants no part in burying the body; that â€Å"I will not be caught betraying him.† (Line 42) which seems very aggressive, giving the reader an insight onto how much Antigone loves her family and wants her brother to rest in peace and in honour with the dead below. Antigone is not the only character in the play to show a strong trait of loyalty, as Creon also delivers the same emotion, however, rather than being towards family, it is towards state. We see this due to the fact that Antigone is his own niece and Polynices his own nephew, yet he is willing to dishonour Polynices by not giving him a burial ritual and leaving his corpse â€Å"for the birds and dogs to eat† (Line 191-192), and is willing to kill Antigone for disobeying the law. Creon is also considered the most important character in Sophocles’ Antigone, mainly due to the fact that the gods retribution is directed upon him, meaning that he is left alone as his family are all dead, showing his importance as the play revolves around him in the end. Similarly to Antigone, Creon is shown as disobedient, yet to the gods and not the law. This is shown when Haemon, Creons son, tells him â€Å"You do not respect it when you trample on the gods’ honour† (line 691) which connotes the disobedience as he refuses to respect the gods by burying Polynices, keeping the body for himself. Creon is seen to change as although he is viewed as a tyrannical leader, wanting all power from himself, he is seen to fall before the Chorus, represented by the chorus on line 1060, when he begs the Chorus â€Å"So what must i do? Tell me! I will obey.†, showing he now is willing to listen to the people, although we know it is too late for things to change for Creon. Creons son, Haemon, changes much like his father, firstly agreeing with Creon and siding with him on not burying Polynices, yet begins to change his views and eventually rallies with the people who desire the burial of Antigones brother. The messenger tells Eurydice â€Å"Corpse lies embracing corpse. The poor man had won his rites of marriage in the house of Hades.† (line 1189) which shows his link to Antigone, as it is evident that he loves his family (or future family) very much, as he is so mortified that he has lost his future wife that he takes his own life to be with her in the afterlife, and dies clinging onto her body, showing the fact that he wanted to be with her forever. Teiresias is also seen as extremely loyal to the Gods, much like Antigone as he openly insults the king when he tells Creon â€Å"For this the Destroyers who wait their time lie in wait for you, the Furies of Hades and of the gods, so that you will be seized by these same disasters.† telling him that he will face a painful death and afterlife, sparing no detail in order to portray the gods wrath. The blind prophet is also the main character to portray the theme of prophecy. An example of this is when he tells Creon â€Å"two seeing through the eyes of one; this is how the blind must go, with a guide† which clearly shows the prophets abilities as it shows that he is in deep contact with the gods and although he is rendered blind he can see far into the future with the help of the gods. Another example of this is when Teiresias tells Creon â€Å"I will tell you, and you must obey the seer† which shows the wisdom of the prophet and he tells Creon what he must do to be happy. Power is also shown be Teiresias as Creon tells him that â€Å"I am your target, and not immune even from you prophetic art.† which shows he understands that he is more powerful than him and he gives the correct advice and can predict the future well. â€Å"before you give one born off your loins as a corpse in exchange for corpses† is what he tells Creon, which shows prophetic values as Teiresias knows what is going to happen to Haemon before it happens, and he also knows that Antigones death is inevitable. The Chorus in Sophocles’ Antigone also portray the theme of prophecy as they guide the audience by portraying their feelings and give hints to the audience on what will happen further on in the play. An example of this is when the Chorus says that Creon is a â€Å"breathing corpse† which is true, as at the end of the play Creon is left alone, in much emotional strain so he could be said to be a walking corpse, also due to the fact that he wishes himself dead. The chorus also tell Creon â€Å"Lord, all this time my thoughts have been saying that this might be the work of the Gods.† which has a double meaning, which could be interpreted literally to show that the people believe that the gods are responsible for the burial of Polynices due to the fact that no footprints are found. Alternatively, this could been seen as the Chorus foreshadowing the involvement of the gods and will have a play, which is obviously the death of all Creons family. Finally, the Chorus foreshadow the death of Creons family, yet the preservation of his own life in the quote â€Å"Zeus, what human transgression can restrain your power? All-conquering sleep cannot master it† which shows that he will not defeat the gods, and will be kept alive after all of his family are gone as a punishment for attempting to defy the gods and not burying the body. Overall, I believe that both the main and minor characters are very important in the development of themes and morals in the play as they show right and wrong, and the consequences that you may face if you disobey the gods, yet also clearly show the consequences of disobeying the law. // o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t=†Ã¢â‚¬ ,o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "studymoose.com"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e

The Variasian Experience Analysis Art Essay

VariAsian was held at the University Cultural Centre Dance Studio in NUS on 12th March 2011. It was the 6th NUS Arts Festival and they had many different creative persons from different Fieldss and different states to come down and execute in jubilation of this festival. The public presentation was about the disregarded times of the past. With the new and up universe of engineering, we tend to bury the memories and the things we one time loved buttocks. What we used to play with when we were kids such as the five rocks, hopscotch and the congkak is now replaced with high engineering games such as the play-station games and the iPhones. The new coevals of childs are now exposed to the new appliances that would do the traditional games ‘disappear ‘ even faster. Sometimes as life base on ballss us by, we tend to go forth those memories behind to be forgotten whereas VariAsian brings us back to the life we used to hold, when everything was simple and was about holding merriment with friends compared to the complexnesss of the current engineerings that people are so caught up with now. ‘When the bell rings†¦ ‘ by Sufri Juwahir was the gap act of the eventide. He was invited to be a invitee choreographer in this production. This piece was performed in silence and the terpsichoreans used the sound of their motions, their breath their linguas and the slippers that they wore throughout the piece as their music. It started out with five pupils have oning bag battalions and slippers with ice pick in their custodies. They walked onto the phase with boxes laid out as chairs and continued to eat their icy comeuppances. They easy started speaking and before you could register what they said, their words became sounds. Like a codification linguistic communication that merely your friends that know you would understand, but the people that does non cognize you every bit good, would non. The conversation started acquiring intense and looked like they were reasoning or contending over something, like how childs would reason over bantam things. One started to travel off from the others, one Saturday on the floor alternatively of the ‘chair ‘ , one was being nescient to everything that is around her and merely concentrating on eating her ice pick while the other two tried to work out the state of affairs. I reminded me of how I was when I was a pupil in primary school during my lunch interr uption. My friends and I would ever play with the five rocks and hopscotch. Sometimes when there are misinterpretations or merely kick unreasonable statements, we would travel off in different waies but the following twenty-four hours, it would travel back to the same modus operandi with the games and it would be a normal twenty-four hours in school. It was the same for this piece of work. They developed from words to sounds so from sounds into motions. They were confronting different waies and at their ain single infinite on phase. The blocks on phase were moved and were now their private infinite, their safe topographic point. They were ‘speaking their heads ‘ through motions, seeking to talk what they feel. The motions that we used were about similar but after awhile, they started making the same motions like they were doing up for the battle. They easy came together and stacked the boxes into a wall for a game of fell and seek. They would take bends to conceal behind the wall of blocks and making the same motions. The 1s that were caught would take a block and played a game of ‘hitting the slipper ‘ . Two of them that we caught formed a pyramid of their slippers on top of the blocks and the game is to strike hard it down with another slipper. One by one got caught and every bit shortly as the two misss formed their pyramid, the remainder mes sed with it and destroyed it intentionally over and over once more like how toughs in schools would pick on you over and over. It happened once more and once more until the two misss picked up their slippers and started dancing with the slippers on their custodies, standing up for themselves against those toughs. They broke out and they all were playing their single games. Some played with their bags, some played with a friend and one was playing the congkak, a long disregarded game, by herself in the corner. It felt like she was conveying back the memory of the game or conveying back an old memory of something she had forgotten for rather some clip and so did the others. All their motions were related to that congkak in one manner or another. Either doing sounds and noises like the beads that hits the wooden base or puting on the floor like the congkak and merely moves when person touches it or places it someplace else. When the miss played with the existent congkak, the others fol lowed her by imitated the motions or the sounds like they were remembering the yearss of their childhood when they used to play that game. Like how when you were younger, you had more freedom to make whatever you wanted with lesser jobs and things to believe about. The lone thing that mattered was that every twenty-four hours that was spent was an gratifying one. This piece was concentrating more on the narrative is wants to state alternatively of the technique and the motion as it was largely gestures that were used and game playing. It was a public presentation that people can associate to and can see themselves in it as it was something that everyone has gone through earlier in their lives. It was about the memories that we keep throughout our lives and the ideas that are most cherished to you. There might be times when you merely want to throw a specific memory off but no affair what you do, you can look to allow it travel. It depends on us if we want those memories to populate on or non. We have the power to do it come back or let it to vanish everlastingly. Traditions that used to be so close to our Black Marias that was passed down to us from our great grandmas are now on the brink of extinction due to the engineering that has been overmastering our universe. How it can take away traditions and take off cherished memories that have yet to go through down to our coevals of kids. Even though those memories or experiences that we ‘ve went through are mistily at that place, it will ever linger in our heads particularly those that affairs. As for the 2nd piece, it had more of an wellbeing and playful sort of feel compared to the first. ‘Variasian ‘ which is the name of this piece was choreographed by Zaini Mohd Tahir. He is the Artistic Director, the Resident Choreographer and the laminitis of the NUS Dance Ensemble. This piece was besides about the games we play and how games used to be simpler when we were younger and how it became more complex as we grew older but we ne'er stop playing. It merely advanced into a more technological version of the traditional games. Some games we grew up with and some had to turn up with us but we still play. There were a choir standing at the sides of the phase when we walked into the studio of where it took topographic point. As I sat down, they started singing. I had thought I walked into the incorrect public presentation infinite. After they were done with the first vocal, the terpsichoreans came out and started running about on phase playing the really old and traditional game that people still play today, the ‘scissors, paper, rock ‘ game. When the say the word ‘stone ‘ , they had to remain still in whatever place they were in and travel when the said the remainder. Watching them reminded me of how I used to love playing that game during recess period when I was in primary school. The volume and the velocity of the game increased as each unit of ammunition passed until it got so feverish and helter-skelter in the public presentation infinite. Their voices got louder and louder every 2nd and it felt like it could make the other side of the school evidences. Th en all of a sudden there were silence and terpsichoreans started vanishing into the wings go forthing half the sum of terpsichoreans on phase. As the terpsichoreans were easy vanishing, the choir sang a slow and dramatic vocal while walking through the infinite on phase, from one side to the other like altering the chapter in a narrative or a drama. The terpsichoreans get downing dancing with flow like motions that looked like they were drifting through the infinite. Their motions and the choir mashed and complimented each other attractively like a absolutely fitted pealing on your finger. Their motions were insistent throughout the piece but they changed it a small by utilizing cannons and different degrees. Once the vocal was over, the terpsichoreans at the side wings rolled in with a cute, wellbeing vocal that came on. It sounded like a vocal you would here when you play a specific game in the arcade. The terpsichoreans were like the life in the games with green and pink lighting , it made it experience like we were besides in the game. Some were ‘crabbing ‘ sideways while the others are running and jumping around them like they were supposed to catch them in order to win. That had to be my favorite portion of the whole public presentation. Then there was a sudden alteration in music and a techno like vocal came on and all the terpsichoreans ran off except for one cat, merely standing at that place like it was his clip to reflect and acquire the limelight, and that ‘s what he did. He started ‘Para Para ‘ dancing entirely in the center of the phase. Para Para is an arcade game that you play entirely where there are colored pointers lined with electronic detectors, and you have to dance and hit all the pointers to win. Slowly all the terpsichoreans came on phase and joined him in his game of Para Para but one by one they could n't catch up and died like they lost the game. One by one collapsed onto the floor and including the male terpsichorean who looked like the male monarch of the game. Surprisingly, the last one standing was a miss and she walked off with an evil laughter with deathly music following her as she left the phase. It was such an unexpected stoping for the piece and I think it made it more interesting and made an impact on me. I left the public presentation with that stoping tarriance in my caput throughout the dark. The eventide was a really interesting one as it genuinely spoke to me and I could associate to both pieces in many ways. It was a dark that took me through memory lane.

Interviewing a Member of a Hospital-Based Ethics Committee Essay

Interviewing a Member of a Hospital-Based Ethics Committee - Essay Example The questions asked in the interview require the following information; name and credentials of the interviewee, purpose and mission of the committee, general composition of the committee. Moreover, the interview found out the number of times meeting were adjourned, the typical meeting agenda, number of committee members and their roles, and lastly how emergent issues were handled. Introduction Hospital-Base Ethics Committee is a system in medical centers that controls the behaviors and characters of health workers in providing services to patients by applying moral principles. The ethics committees vary in diverse forms such as research-based committees that determine whether intended researches are ethically sound and safe. Case-oriented committees’ role involves giving advice on issues disturbing tranquility in medical centers (Derr, 2009). I conducted an interview to a member of the Ethical Committee in Yale-New Hospital on issues concerning the committee. Interview I conducted an interrogation with one of the members of Hospital-Base Ethics Committee, Dr. Kelvin Smith, a senior and esteemed doctor in Yale-New Haven Hospital situated in US. He is also the chairman of the Hospital-Base Ethics Committee, and has apt information for my answers. Dr. Smith is an enthusiastic and friendly individual who welcomed me comfortably and in a relaxed manner. The interview was conducted in his office at around ten o’clock in the morning. I had previously asked him to put forward 1 hour of his busy schedule for my interview, which he fortunately accepted. The following were the questions I asked and answers he replied; 1. What is your name and credentials? My name is Dr. Kelvin Smith, and I have admirable credentials because of my hard work I put in everything I carry out. I have a PhD in Medical Science from Harvard Medical University and two masters in Public Health and Business Administration. Moreover, I have a degree in Information Technology (IT) that I learnt earlier in my youthful years. One of the achievements I have made is being the best and influential doctor in Yale-New Haven Hospital. I also came second as the most successful doctor in the whole country in medical career. The above mentioned accomplishments are the esteemed achievements I have made, though there are other minor attainments since I started my career. 2. What is the purpose and mission of the committee? The purpose of the Hospital-Based Ethics Committee is to vet all the researches conducted in the hospital by ensuring that they are secure for the health workers and patients. The Ethical Committee also ensures that hospital programs and services are run ethically. This ensures that an intimate relationship exists between patients and health workers (Derr, 2009). The mission of the Ethical Committee states that â€Å"The Hospital-Based Ethics Committee aims at protecting the rights of the health workers and patients by implementing relevant ethical pri nciples.’ 3. How often does the committee meet? The Hospital-Based Ethics Committee holds meeting 2 times in a month. The first meeting is held in the first week while the second meeting is held at the last week of the month. The Hospital-Based Committee members’ ensure that all the issues affecting the hospital progression are discussed and handled amicably. 4. What is the typical meeting agenda? The typical meeting agenda of the meeting involves reshaping ethics structures in the hospital. The agenda always aims at improving and implementing the ethical principles in running the Yale-New Haven Hospital programs. The basis of the agenda is to ensure that health officers, workers, and patients understand the significance of

Evangelism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Evangelism - Essay Example Rainer reports the findings of a survey done of more than four thousand churches in US and he points out that many congregations are abandoning the biblical model of pastoral ministry. The pastor is actually required to spend time in prayer and in the ministry of word. However, congregations are demanding more attention and time from the Pastor for tasks that are not related to the biblical foundation. As time passes, more and more new and unreasonable expectations would be placed on the overburdened pastors and if the pastors have to meet all the perceived needs and demands of church members, they would have little time to devote to their primary and main calling preaching. The author has also attempted to justify that though the pastor is expected to be involved increasingly in the community in non-theological tasks but the extent of involvement should not be considered as the measure of success and failure when attendance at a Church starts reducing. The author also reports that a few decades back, the pastor had a position of respect and esteem and unfortunately today, many pastors get very little respect in the communities where they survive. In fact, many of the harshest and most unloving critics of pastors can be found within their own congregations (Rainer, 2001, p. 55). In later sections of the Chapter, Rainer gives details of the interview he conducted with 353 formerly unchurched people. Two main questions were asked that brought about significant responses about pastors and the first was did the pastor and his preaching play a part in your coming to the Church?" For this question, more than 97% of the respondents replied that they agreed. The second question require a much more subjective response and asked about what factors led you to choose the Church?". The subjective question items and the percentage of responses are indicated as below. As seen in the above figure, the

A Reaction and Opinion on the TIVO Service Essay

A Reaction and Opinion on the TIVO Service - Essay Example This has happened in films for several decades: for example, the Aston-Martin cars that James Bond always drives or the prominently placed soft drinks such as Coke in many teenage films. This is starting to occur in TV programs as well. TIVO has an edge over other companies because it was the first one to offer such service, but many cable companies are now competing with them. For example, most cable companies, such as Comcast, now offer Digital Video Recorders that can be rented on a monthly basis and perform the same function as TIVO. These services are also cheaper than TIVO. Professional athletes are in the public spotlight for one simple reason. They are incredibly good at playing certain sports that many people want to watch and so they are paid a lot of money. These athletes are paid huge sums of money because of the amount advertisers will pay TV stations for the sports and the amount that fans will pay to attend the events. But unfortunately, professional athletes are also expected, for reasons that are not entirely clear, to be "role-models" for fans in general and the young in particular. For better or worse, people look up to athletes, and so parents/society expect them to act in a certain way.

Organizational behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organizational behavior - Essay Example However, when applying theories to human beings, society as a whole, how business is conducted, and to life experiences the value of the truth of theories can become a matter of perspective; there are so many variables it can be much more difficult. When presented with the theory that college students spend immense amounts of money and place themselves in ,massive debt in order to gain this education on a world of theories that are ultimately worthless; therefore making that time and effort wasted and education an overall scam (Geneen, 1984). This seems to be a vey arbitrary statement and self negating. If all theories are, as posed, are nonsense would that not include his own immediate theory that â€Å"theories† in general are worthless; would that not include his own? He negates his own position with his own statement. Students seeking their MBAs are taught all of the theories, not just for future application, but to teach the history of organization business behaviors have evolved. Learning them will gain you knowledge and high grades, even many of those theories prove impractical in some businesses settings. Today’s businesses are quite different from the types of businesses that were established in another era; they are more diverse, multi-cultural, and, sometimes, international in nature. Modern businesses must be as diversified and those they serve, as well as, those you employ and manage. Education has a great value. The efforts and expense of an education are not pointless. Theories are not worthless. If nothing else they are a lesson in different approaches and applications those theories, for better or worse, can be learned from. However, today they must be less rigid; they are not mathematical formulas where there is only one right answer. Some companies like someone well versed in the theories of business even if their application is limited within the business, while others prefer free thinkers not individuals that simply regurgitate

Critique assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Critique assignment - Essay Example It should be noted that the author has also helped in identifying a flow of the problem with the research purpose. The manner in which the topic has been discussed in the introduction makes it easier for the reader to expect the research methodology and findings. From the first instance of having a look at the title of the article, the readers can expect that the introduction will be able to create a textual as well as contextual construct. In simpler words, it can be said that the introduction of the article is clearly relevant with the objective as appointed by the author. It can also be said that the author has address some of the information tags in the introduction which may provide information which takes the reader beyond the understanding of article’s subject matter. This may be considered as irrelevant by some of the critiques but it is important to note that additional information in the introduction allows the readers to evaluate the peculiarities of the research. T hus, overall it can be said that the introduction written by the author in the article proves to be a stronger context to the research’s findings (Barton et al. 2012) The article has been published by International Journal of Audiology which is one of the most significant contributions in the field. The article was received on 15th September 2010. As per the reliability test, the acceptance of the article was done on 10 September 2011. Since the journal in publishing the content for the research purpose, it took another year for the journal to publish the article. The affiliation of the article is with International Journal of Audiology which makes it joint with British Society of Audiology and Nordic Audiological Society. The article’s publishing source, International Journal of Audiology has been a publishing source for many high-rated contributors in the field of audiology. The journal includes both original articles as well as reviews of

Eating Disorder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Eating Disorder - Essay Example The second, as Bernard Shaw said, â€Å"Your food is your grave†. I am 23 years old and I have realized that sickness sells at premium and health is at discount. I have seen some of my friends suffer from eating disorders and bouts of depression. They neglect their studies, physically and mentally abuse themselves. I am convinced by observing the real-life examples of my friends that modern education system is one of the important agents to cause eating disorders amongst the combustible younger generation. Eat junk food and other types of fast foods at the wrong time. Eat without time consideration, whether you are hungry or not. On the other extreme, do not eat at all and starve with the sole idea to turn slim. Treat this as an invitation to the eating disorder. The youngsters and adolescent girls have lost the sense of discipline in food intake and have no diet-discipline. The influence of materialistic civilization on the youth is tremendous. The eating disorder impacts the ir personality and once into it, they will have a tough time to recoup the original health and become normal selves again. Newspaper, television and glamorous advertisements convey the wrong message to the adolescent girls that their bodies are imperfect and perfection can be attained with the help of fasting, diet and cosmetics. They render immense disservice to the culture of America with interference in the normal life of girls. Surgery and diet control measures are offered at fabulous prices with promise of reducing weight in short periods. Girls are lured into it, accept it without being aware of the side effects and suffer in the long run. These are some of the important causes for eating disorder, according to me. Eating disorder can be challenged and overcome. If you are a student, listen to the real life experience of the seniors, read literature that gives positive direction to conquer eating disorder and give your body the food it needs, neither less or more. Make a timet able, calorie-wise schedule of the food items that you are going to take and stick to it. My female cousin who stays in the same community at a distance of about a mile from my house has gone through this ordeal of eating disorder. Both families have close interaction, and we all meet quite often in social/family functions. The problem with the combustible younger generation, especially the adolescent girls, is that they are not willing to listen to the first-hand experiences of others. When she began to lose weight, I enquired of her what the issue was. Slimming was her only goal then and she was not inclined to adopt some golden rules of healthy lifestyle. I counseled for hours against her voluntary efforts to destroy her health, but she said that she enjoyed suffering but wished to get slimmer. This is the story of my stubborn cousin. She is an ardent devotee of the cult of thinness that has influenced the turbulent mindset of the young girls. I say turbulent, because even a marg inal increase in the body weight increases their tension. She is younger of the two daughters and they are a happy family. Somebody in the party told her, â€Å"You have put on weight,† and that is the beginning of her journey of worry†¦ I went on a posting to another city, and though I remained in contact with her over the phone, for a personal interaction with her I had to wait for about two years. When I returned back to the city, she expressed her eagerness to meet me urgently and she had a wealth of information to share with me about her sufferings for the last two years. â€Å"I am feeling much better now,† she said with a sigh. Here is her part of the story: â€Å"On listening to that one pound increase remark in the party two years ago, I really panicked. I came home and checked my weight, and the increase

Education in India Essay Example for Free

Education in India Essay Takshasila was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from at least 5th century BCE and it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university. [2] Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Overall System Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: central,state, and local. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the State Governments, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State Government. The National Policy on Education (NPE) is a policy formulated by the Government of India to promote education amongst Indias people. The policy covers elementary education to colleges in both rural and urban India. The first NEP was promulgated in 1968 by the government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, and the second by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1986. It emphasizes three aspects in relation to elementary education: * universal access and enrolment, * universal retention of children up to 14 years of age, and * a substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to achieve * Revival of Sanskrit and other classical languages for contemporary use. Today education system in India can be divided into many stages. * Pre- Primary It consists of children of 3-5 years of age studying in nursery, lower kindergarten and upper kindergarten. At this stage student is given knowledge about school life and is taught to read and write some basic words. * Primary It includes the age group of children of 6-11 years studying in classes from first to fifth. * Middle It consists of children studying in classes from sixth to eighth. * Secondary it includes students studying in classes ninth and tenth. * Higher Secondary Includes students studying in eleventh and twelfth classes. * Undergraduate Here, a student goes through higher education, which is completed in college. This course may vary according to the subject pursued by the student. For medical student this stage is of four and a half years plus one year of compulsory internship, while a simple graduate degree can be attained in three years. * Postgraduate After completing graduation a student may opt for post graduation to further add to his qualifications. 10+2+3 pattern [. * The central and most state boards uniformly follows the 10+2+3 pattern of education. [11]:3 In this pattern, 10 years of primary and secondary education is followed by 2 years of higher secondary (usually in schools having the higher secondary facility, or in colleges),[11]:44 and then 3 years of college education for bachelors degree. [12] Distant Education * National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi is one of the mega open universities in the world and caters to around 1 million students around the world. Vocational Education. Vocational Education at Certificate level are offered by 1500 vocational institutions in the country in the areas of agriculture, business, commerce, health and para-medical, home science and humanities in addition to engineering trades. Primary Education in India The World Education Forum, held in 2000 set an ambitious goal: universal primary education by the year 2015. Schooling all children until they reach young adulthood is recognized as important because it leads to many substantial positive effects: better family health, lower birth rate, higher productivity, higher earnings, and improved economics of the country as a whole. Globally, however, more than 115 million children of primary school age do not attend school. The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education up to the age of fourteen years, referred to as elementary education in India. [14] The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions. Further, education has been made free[14] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. [18] Current status of primary education in IndiaAbout 20% of Indian children between the ages of six and 14 are not enrolled in school. Even among enrolled children, attendance rates are low and 26% of pupils enrolled in primary school drop out before Grade 5. The situation is worse in certain sectors of the population Despite a vibrant emerging economy and a string of excellent colleges that produce high caliber professionals, India has not made the grade yet on primary education. Hurdles in primary education (double it as general problems as well) Shortage of resources and lack of political will. High pupil to teacher ratios,(shortage of teachers –one teacher schools) Shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. (toilet for girls etc. ) The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education of 2009 recommended longer preparation for teachers, but the B. Ed curriculum structure continued to be for a single year. There is also a lack of enough skilled trainers and preparation to develop skills, abilities and attitudes to teach students. Poverty and illiteracy of the parent Gender Issues(girls cannot study). Social Issues like caste system (some castes are not allowed) Several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. (primary education) The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system. [19] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states. [19] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3. 5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes. [19] . [19] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme. [19] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality HERE first Write to improve all the above negative issues. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)/Right to Education (RTE). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All Movement) is a programme by the Government of India aimed at the universalization of elementary education in a time bound manner, as mandated by the 86th amendment to the Constitution of India making free education to children aged 6–14 (estimated to be 205 million in number in 2001) a fundamental right. The programme was pioneered by Atal Bihari Vajpayee. SSA is being implemented in partnership with State Governments to cover the entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1. 1 million habitations. In FY 2009-10,60% of SSA funds came from GOI. This has now been revised to 65%. The programme is looking to open new schools in those habitations without schooling facilities and to strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants. SSA is now the primary vehicle for implementing the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE). National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) The National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL), is a focused intervention of Government of India, to reach the â€Å"Hardest to Reach† girls, especially those not in school. Launched in July 2003, it is an important component of SSA, which provides additional support for enhancing girl’s education over and above the investments for girl’s education through normal SSA interventions. The programme provides for development of a â€Å"model school† in every cluster with more intense community mobilization and supervision of girls enrolment in schools. Gender sensitization of teachers, development of gender-sensitive learning materials, and provision of need-based incentives like escorts, stationery, workbooks and uniforms are some of the endeavors under the programme. The future of primary education in India The importance of universal primary education has now been widely recognized by everyone involved. Policies and pledges are easy to make but implementation can be difficult and goals hard to achieve, especially in a vast and populous country such as India. International agencies, the government of India, and the numerous NGOs will have to work together with will, wisdom and tremendous energy to make their desire for universal primary education by 2015 a reality in India. Secondary education. For several decades, it has been argued in the literature that secondary education needs to be expanded both as a response to increased social demand and as a feeder cadre for higher education, giving little emphasis to its other important functions. It is also argued that investment in secondary education yields considerable social and economic returns, making it crucial for national development India is following a service-led growth model and striving hard to survive the global competition, in these conditions it is being increasingly recognised that secondary education, is the most critical segment of the education chain. Apart from the bottom-up pressure (i. e. arising from the growth of primary schooling) and the top-down pressure (as the source of potential intakes for higher education) for its expansion, there is a need to pay greater attention to secondary education as it caters to the needs of the most important segment of the population – adolescents and youth, the source of the future human and social capital of a nation. Secondary education covers children 14–18 which covers 88. 5 million children according to the Census, 2001. Features * A significant feature of Indias secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. * Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. * Another feature of Indias secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing. [27] * A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[28] Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education. [7] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[29] The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 for the employees of the central government of India to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employees family has been transferred. [7] Policy Initiatives in secondary education After independence, the first step towards improving policy planning for development of secondary education was the setting up of the Secondary Education Commission in 1952(also known as the Mudaliar Commission). The primary objective of the Commission was todiagnose the growth pattern and suggest measures for reorganisation and improvement ofsecondary education. The commission’s major recommendation was to develop a 3-yearnational system of secondary education after 8-years of elementary education (8 + 3 systemof school education) to make it a complete stage. The commission also recommended thereconstruction of the syllabus to provide a wider and more balanced course and adopt mother tongue as the medium of instruction (Kabir, 1955). Nearly one-and-a-half decades after the Mudaliar Commission, the Kothari Commission(1964-66), while articulating goals and objectives at all stages of education in the context ofnational development priorities, recommended for a 4-year secondary education system anddiscontinuing the practice of ‘streaming’ up to Grade X. It may be noted that, ten years afterthe commission submitted its report; education was placed in the Concurrent List States and the centre responsible for its development. This changed the policy context fordevelopment of secondary education. The National Policy on Education (NPE), of 1986 subsequently reiterated the views of the Education Commission to implement a 4-year secondary education system across the states and UTs. 23 The NPE emphasised improving equitable access to secondary education and the enrolment of girls, SCs and STs, particularly in science, commerce and vocational streams (Para 5. 13 of the NPE, 1986). The NPE and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992 while recognising secondary education as a critical instrument for social change, called for its planned expansion. The NPE, (as modified in 1992) specifically laid emphasis again on increasing access to secondary education with particular focus on participation of girls, SCs and STs; increased autonomy of Boards ofSecondary Education to enhance their ability to improve quality; introduction of ICT inschool curriculum for coping with globalisation; renewed emphasis on work ethos and valuesof a humane and  composite culture in the curricula; And vocationalisation through specialisedinstitutions or through the refashioning of secondary education to meet the manpower requirements of the growing Indian economy Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) This scheme was launched in March, 2009 with the objective to enhance access to secondary education and to improve its quality. The implementation of the scheme started from 2009-10. It is envisaged to achieve an enrolment rate of 75% from 52. 26% in 2005-06 at secondary stage within 5 years of implementation of the scheme by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of any habitation. The other objectives include improving quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms, removing gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, providing universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i. e. , by the end of 12th Five Year Plan and achieving universal retention by 2020. Inclusive Education for the Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) The Scheme of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) has been launched from the year 2009-10. This Scheme replaces the earlier scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and would provide assistance for the inclusive education of the disabled children in classes IX-XIITo enable all students with disabilities, after completing eight years of elementary schooling, to pursue further four years of secondary schooling in an inclusive and enabling environment. Higher education Indias higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. [32] The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state. [33] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission. [34] In India, education system is reformed. In future, India will be one of the largest education hub. After passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination), students may enroll in general degree programmes such as bachelors degreein arts, commerce or science, or professional degree programmes such as engineering, law or medicine. [31] As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 33 institutes which are of national importance. [33] Other institutions include 16,000 colleges, including 1,800 exclusive womens colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions. [33] The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. [35] Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes. [36] Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system. [36] Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of undergraduate education in engineering. [36] The IITs enroll about 10,000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India. [37] Several other institutes of fundamental research such as the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS), Indian Institute of Science IISC), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Harishchandra Research Institute (HRI), are acclaimed for their standard of research in basic sciences and mathematics. Government programs on Education Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan[. The Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan is a centrally sponsored flagship umbrella scheme aimed at providing strategic funding to State higher and technical institutions. States will develop comprehensive state higher education plans that utilize an interconnected strategy to address issues of expansion, equity and excellence together. Central funding will be linked to academic, administrative and financial reforms of state higher education. The Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan proposes to put a ceiling of maximum number of colleges to be affiliated to any university at two hundred . [17] Higher Education and Eleventh Plan (2007-2012) With the objectives and proposals of the Plan as the basis, the report mentions that the private sector has played an instrumental role in the growth of the sector. Private institutions now account for 64% of the total number of institutions and 59% of enrollment in the country, as compared to 43% and 33%, respectively, a decade ago. The Government has also given the required thrust to the sector in its Five Year Plans. During the Eleventh Plan period (2007–2012), India achieved a Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 17. 9%, up from 12. 3% at the beginning of the Plan period. India’s higher education system faces challenges on three fronts: Expansion:India’s GER of16% was much below the world average of 27%, as well as that of other emerging countries such as China (26%) and Brazil (36%) in 2010. Excellence:Faculty shortage there is 40% and 35% shortage of faculty in state and central universities, respectively. Accredited institutions 62% of universities and 90% of colleges were average or below average in 2010, on the basis of their NAAC accreditation. Low citation impact India’s relative citation impact is half the world average. Equity There is wide disparity in the GER of higher education across states and the Gross Attendance Ratio (GAR) in urban and rural areas, and gender- and community-wise Drawbacks of Indian Higher Education System * Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupils, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. * Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Indian Government has failed to check on these education shops, which are run by big businessmen politicians. * Many private colleges and universities do not fulfill the required criterion by the Government and central bodies (UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc. ) and take students for a ride. * Quality assurance mechanism has failed to stop misrepresentations and malpractices in higher education. At the same time regulatory bodies have been accused of corruption, specifically in the case of deemed-universities. [39] Road Ahead in Higher Education * Merit-based student financing: This should ensure admissions to meritorious students independent of financial background * Internationalization of education: This would entail aligning different aspects of education (curriculum, faculty, etc) to international standards * Enabling a research environment. This would involve creating adequate means of research funding and practical application of research * High quality faculty: The need of the hour is to create a conducive environment and provide incentives to attract and retain high quality faculty. * Improved technology for education delivery: Leveraging technology for enhancing the teaching-learning experience will ensure better outcomes * Employability: Making education-industry relevant and practical would be the right way to ensure a highly employable talent pool India’s higher education system can be expected to be better aligned to industry and global practices, and be more transparent and inclusive by the end of Twelfth Plan period, provided the Government is able to create an enabling regulatory environment and put in place robust implementation, monitoring and quality assurance mechanisms. * Legislative support. One of the most talked about bill is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to facilitate entry of foreign universities to establish campuses in India. * Private Sector-The private sector can be expected to play an instrumental role in the achievement of these outcomes through the creation of knowledge networks, research and innovation centers, corporate-backed institutions, and support for faculty development. Saakshar Bharat (Saakshar Bharat)/Adult Education. The Prime Minister of India launched Saakshar Bharat, a centrally sponsored scheme of Department of School Education and Literacy (DSEL), Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India (GOI), on the International Literacy Day, 8th September, 2009. It aims to further promote and strengthen Adult Education, specially of women, Education Governing Bodies he Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): This is the main governing body of education system in India. It has control over the central education system. It conducts exam and looks after the functioning of schools accredited to central education system. * The Council of Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE): It is a board for Anglo Indian Studies in India. It conducts two examinations Indian Certificate of Secondary Education and Indian School Certificate. Indian Certificate of secondary education is a k-10 examination for those Indian students who have just completed class 10th and Indian school certificate is a k-12 public examination conducted for those studying in class 12th. * The State Government Boards: Apart from CBSE and CISCE each state in India has its own State Board of education, which looks after the educational issues. * The National Open School: It is also known as National Institute of Open Schooling. It was established by the Government Of India in 1989. It is a ray of hope for those students who cannot attend formal schools. * The International School: It controls the schools, which are accredited to curriculum of international standard. * Classification of Colleges. Colleges in India come under four different categories. This categorization is done on the basis of the kind of courses offered by them (professional/ vocational) / their ownership status( Private/ Government) or their relationship with the university (affiliated/university owned). University Colleges These colleges are managed by the university itself and situated mostly in the university campus. Government Colleges The government colleges are few, only about 15-20 percent of the total. They are managed by state governments. As in case of other colleges, the university to which these colleges are affiliated, conducts their examination, lays down the courses of studies and awards the degrees. Professional Colleges The professional colleges are mostly in the disciplines of medicine, engineering and management. There are few for other disciplines too. They are sponsored and managed either by the government or by private initiative. Privately Managed colleges About 70% of the colleges are founded by the privately owned trusts or societies. But these institutes are also governed by the rules and regulations of the university they are affiliated to. Though initially started up as a private initiative, the state government also funds these college Private Education What is it? What is the need for it ? What are benefits? What are problems with it? What can be done to streamline it? India saw the largest increase in literacy rate in the decadeof 1991–2001 — from about 52 per cent to 65 per cent. From 2001 to 2011, the literacy rate increased by 9 per cent to 74 per cent (Planning Commission 2011). The 13 per cent increase in 1991–2001 has been the largest for any 10-year period in the history of the country. Private investments and the emergence of budget private schools was the main cause for this.! As parents began to earn more in the post-reform era, they began to invest in their children. As better employment opportunities arose, the value of education became more apparent to parents. This increased demand for education was met by a rapid expansion of budget private schools The biggest success story of literacy in India has been written withprivate initiative — parents’ willingness to pay and the edupreneur innovation of an aff ordable school. In post-liberalisation India, the importance of the private sector in economic growth is well understood and appreciated. For economic growth, the state’s role is primarily to enable the private sector as a facilitator, prudent regulator, impartial enforcer of contracts, and at times as a financier Incentives for efficiency are also weak. Government employees have little incentive to minimise costs, fi nd and correct mistakes, innovate, and acquire necessary information about resources and consumer demand. The high teacher absenteeism in government schools is just one indicator of poor incentives. . High prices in terms of tuition fees, donations andlong queues for admissions are signs of the shortage of quality educational institutions. The same paucity of supply existed for consumer goods before the 1991 liberalisation. The license-permit-quota raj still exists in our education system. Schools and colleges need to be made accountable not to education bureaucrats (licensors) but to parents and students (customers). The government policy should be to increase choice and competition in education as it has been done in many areas of the economy — facilitate, not control. The core competency of the private and public sectors should be combined. The private sector should be allowed to produce education — manage schools and colleges — and provide it to all who can aff ord to pay. For those who cannot aff ord to pay, the government should finance their education through scholarships, education vouchers and loans. Instead of focusing on the inputs to education, the government ensures the output — meaningful, high quality learning. This approach combines the efficiency and accountability of the private sector with the equity and independent supervision of the public sector. . Governments and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) should evaluate schools and colleges and publish the results so that parents can make informed decisions. One key goal of global reformers is to increase the accountability of schools towards parents — restructure the system so that schools are at least as much accountable to parents as they are to the education offi cials. There are many ways to achieve this goal: put parents on school boards or district education councils, give powers to parent-teacher associations, create something like our village education committees . One new idea in this bucket is that of school vouchers. Several countries have undertaken pilot projects. The voucher is a tool to change the way governments finance education, particularly of the poor. It is a coupon off ered by the government that covers full or partial cost of education at the school of the student’s choice. The schools collect vouchers from the students, deposit them in their bank accounts and the banks then credit the school accounts with equivalent money while debiting the account of the government. Section 12 of the RTE requires private unaided schools to reserve 25 per cent seats in the entry-level class (nursery or Class I) for socially disadvantaged and economically weaker sections. The government would provide private schools with reimbursements equal to their fees or the per student cost in government schools, whichever is lower. EDUCATION REFORM Just as in economic reforms, the list of education reform ideas could be quite long. This paper suggests that two principles should be the focus of reforms in the education ecosystem — effi cient use of public funds and the promotion of equity and quality through choice and competition. Achieve Efficient Use of Public Funds. (a) Fund students, not schools (school vouchers, charter schools, conditional cash transfers); (b) Convert state funding to per student basis and link it to performance; (d) Give poorly performing state schools to private parties on learning outcome contracts; (e) Hire teachers at the school level, not at the state level; Promote Equity and Quality through Choice and Competition: (i) Apply the same standards to both private as well as government schools; (ii) Annual independent learning outcome assessment across all schools; (iii) Decentralise and depoliticise syllabi and textbooks; (iv) Open Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and state board exams to all students, not only for students who study in CBSE or state board affiliated schools.

The Irrationality Of The Mathematical Constant E Mathematics Essay

The Irrationality Of The Mathematical Constant E Mathematics Essay This dissertation gives an account of the irrationality of the mathematical constant. Starting with a look into the history of irrational numbers of which is a part of, dating back to the Ancient Greeks and through to the theory behind exactly why is irrational. 1. Introduction: In this paper, I aim to look at some of the history and theory behind irrational numbers ( in particular). It will take you through from learning the origins of irrational numbers, to proving the irrationality of itself. The mathematical constant is a very important and remarkable number; it is sometimes referred to as Eulers number. It has many vital applications in calculus, exponential growth/decay and also compound interest. One of the most fascinating things however is taking the derivative of the exponential function; defined. The derivative of is simply, i.e. it is its own rate of change. An irrational number can be defined as any number that cannot be written as a fraction; that means to say any number that cannot be written in the form. 1.1 History of Irrational Numbers: The first proof of the existence of irrational numbers came a few centuries BC, during the time when a prevalent group of mathematicians/philosophers/cultists called Pythagoreans (after their leader and teacher Pythagoras) believed in the purity of expressions granted by numbers. They believed that anything geometric in the Universe could be expressed as whole numbers and their ratios. It is believed a Pythagorean by the name Hippasus of Metapontum discovered irrational numbers while investigating square roots of prime numbers; he found that he could not represent the square root of 2 as a fraction. Bringing his findings to his mentors (Pythagoras) attention brought the death sentence upon himself. As story has it, Pythagoras (who believed in the absoluteness of numbers) had him drowned to death. According to Plato (a prominent Greek philosopher and mathematician; 428/427 BC 348/347 BC), the irrationality of the surds of whole numbers up to 17 was proved by Theodorus of Cyrene. It is understood that Theodorus stopped at the square root of 17 due to the algebra being used failing. It wasnt until Eudoxus (a student of Plato) that a strong mathematical foundation of irrational numbers was produced. His theory on proportion, taking into account irrational and rational ratio featured in Euclids Elements Book V. The sixteenth to nineteenth century saw negative, integral and decimal fractions with the modern notation being used by most mathematicians. The nineteenth century was particularly important in the history of irrational numbers as they had largely been ignored since the time of Euclid. The resurgence in the scientific study of irrationals was brought upon by the need to complete the theory of complex numbers. An important advancement in the logical foundation of calculus was the construction of the real numbers using set theory. The construction of the real numbers represented the joint efforts of many mathematicians; amongst them were Dedekind, Cantor and Weierstrass. Irrational numbers were finally defined in 1872 by H.C.R. Mà ©ray, his definition being basically the same as Cantor suggested in the same year (which made use of convergent sequences of real numbers). Leonhard Euler paid particular attention to continued fractions and in 1737 was able to use them to be the first to prove the irrationality of and. It took another 23 years for the irrationality of to be proved, of which was accredited to Eulers colleague Lambert. The nineteenth century brought about a change in the way mathematicians viewed irrational numbers. In 1844 Joseph Liouville established the existence of transcendental numbers, though it was 7 years later when he gave the first decimal example such as his Liouville constant.Charles Hermite in 1973 was the first person to prove that was a transcendental number. Using Hemites conclusions Ferdinand von Lindemann was able to show the same for in 1882. 1.2 History of the Mathematical Constant: The number first arrived into mathematics in 1618, where a table in an appendix to work published by John Napier and his work on logarithms were found to contain natural logarithms of various numbers. The table did not contain the constant itself only a list of natural logarithms calculated from the constant. Though the table had no name of an author, it is highly assumed to have been the work of an English mathematician, William Oughtred. Surprisingly the discovery of the constant itself came not from studying logarithms but from the study of compound interest. In 1683 Jacob Bernoulli examined continuous compound interest by trying to find the limit of as tends to infinity. Bernoulli managed to show that the limit of the equation had to lie between 2 and 3, and hence could be considered to be the first approximation of. 1690 saw the constant first being used in a correspondence from Gottfried Leibniz to Christiaan Huygens; it was represented at the time by the letter. The notation of using the letter however came about due to Euler and made its first appearance in a letter he wrote to Goldbach in 17318. Euler published all the ideas surrounding in his work Introductio in Analysin infinitorum (1748). Within this work he approximated the value of to 18 decimal places; The latest accurate account of is to 1,000,000,000,000 decimal places and was calculated by Shigeru Kondo Alexander J. Yee in July 2010. 1.3 A few representations of e: can be defined by the limit: (1) By the infinite series: (2) Special case of the Euler formula: (3) Where when, (4) 2. The Proofs: 2.1 Proving the infinite series of e: In proof 2.2.2 we will use the fact that: (5) As this paper dedicated to, it would be useful to know where this equation comes from. The answer lies in the Maclaurin series (Taylor series expansion of a function centred at 0). (6) Let our, and we have that all derivatives of is equal to We now have that. (7) We now let and we have equation (5). 2.2 The irrationality of e and its powers. Continued fractions are closely related to irrational numbers and in 1937 Leonhard Euler used this link and was able to prove the irrationality of and. The most general form of a continued fraction takes the form: (6) Due to the complexity that can arise in using the format in equation (6), mathematicians have adopted a more convenient notation of writing simple continued fractions. We have that can be expressed in the following manner: (7) With the use of continued fractions it is relatively easy to show that the expansion of any rational number is finite. So it is obvious to note that all you would have to do to prove that a given number is irrational, would be to show its regular expansion not be finite. Using this tool we will now show the Eulers expansion for: We have: (8) Equation (8) shows, we now invert the fractional part: (9) Here we have, once again we invert the fractional part: (10) Hence, we continue in the same way to produce: (11) So. (12) So. (13) So. (14) So. (15) So. (16) So. Using the figures above provides the following result: (17) Observing equation (17) allows us to notice pattern and we can show this by re-writing in the following way: (18) Clearly it seems that the sequence will clearly increase and never terminate. Similarly Euler shows this in other examples using. (19) Equation (19) shows an arithmetic increase by 4 each time from the number 6 and onwards. Noticeably equation (18) and (19) do not provide proof that is irrational and are merely just observations. However Euler uses his previous work on infinitesimal calculus, which then proves this sequence is infinite. The proof that Euler uses is very long and complicated as it involves transforming continued fractions into a ratio of power series, which in turns becomes a differential equation of that he can transform into the Ricatti equation he needs. Since Eulers time mathematicians have found far more manageable and direct ways in proving the irrationality of. 2.2.1 Proving the irrationality of e: While Euler was the first to establish a proof of the irrationality of using infinite continued fractions, we will use Fouriers (1815) idea of using infinite series to prove more directly. Proof: Defining the terms: Using the Maclaurin series expansion we have: (20) Now lets define to be a partial sum of: (21) For we first write the inequality: (22) Equation (22) has to be positive as we stated to be the partial sum of, which is the infinite sum. Now well find the upper limit of equation (22): (23) Taking out a factor of: (24) Now as we are looking for an upper limit, we need an equation greater than equation (24): (25) We take note that the terms in the square bracket in equation (25) for the upper limit is a geometric series with. Right hand Side (RHS) of equation (25): (26) (27) (28) (29) We have: (30) Multiply through by: (31) Now lets assume i.e. is rational. Using the substitution implies: (32) Now by expanding the RHS gives us the following result: (33) (34) We note the following: is an integer. , this implies that divides into and hence is an integer. Each term within the square bracket is an integer; we know that can be divided by and upwards to and produce integer values. Therefore as all terms are integers, we have: (35) where is an integer value. Observe that by choosing any we have and furthermore. Using equation (31) we now obtain the following result: (36) (37) Equation (37) implies is not an integer. This is a contradiction to the result obtained in 1) and so therefore is proven to be irrational. 2.2.2 Proving the irrationality of ea: Proof 2.1 successfully shows how is irrational however, the proof is not strong enough to show the irrationality of. Using an example, we have the as a known irrational number, whose square is not. In order to show all integer powers (except zero) of are irrationals, we need a bit more calculus and an idea tracking back to Charles Hermite; where the key is located in the following lemma. Proof: Lemma: For some fixed, let: (38) The function is a polynomial of the form, where the coefficientsare integers. For we have The derivatives and are integers for all Proof: (see appendix) Theorem 2: is irrational for any integer. Proof: Take to be rational, where is a non-zero rational number. Let with non-zero integers and. being rational implies that is rational. This is a contradiction to theorem 2 and hence is irrational. Assume where are integers, and let be large enough that. State , (39) where is the function of the lemma. Note that can also be written in the form of an infinite sum as we see that any higher derivatives where for vanishes. We now want to obtain a first order linear equation using equation (39). We start by differentiating: (40) Now from observation we see that by multiplying equation (39) by and then eliminating the first term we end up with equation (40). (41) Equation (41) takes the form our required first order linear equation, which is solved in the following manner: First re-write in the standard form: (42) Next we find the integrating factor  µ to multiply to both sides of the equation: (43) From equation (43) we now have the following equation: (44) (45) Note the limit runs as stated in of the lemma. We now manipulate equation (45) by multiplying by so that we can apply of the lemma. (46) (47) We have that , so thereforeand hence: (48) As is just a polynomial containing integer values multiplying derivatives of, we can state using of the lemma that is an integer. Part of the lemma states . With this we can now estimate the range that lies within. Firstly we know that is a positive value and hence. For the upper limit we have: (49) Note that to find the upper limit we eliminate the integral and substitute the upper bounds for and. From before we have and also that we took n large enough so that, which can be re-written , which implies the following: (50) (51) Equation (51) states that cannot be an integer and hence contradicts Equation (48). Therefore we have that is proven to be irrational. 3. Further Work: Following on and further proving the irrationality of, would be to prove that is a transcendental number. Irrational numbers can be split into two categories algebraic and transcendental; hence transcendental numbers are numbers that are not algebraic. Algebraic numbers are defined as any number that can be written as the root of an equation of the form. A minimal polynomial is achieved when is the smallest degree possible for a given. The square root of 2 is an example of an irrational number, but also it is an algebraic number of degree 2, of which the minimal polynomial is simply. Euler in the late 18th century was the first person to define transcendental numbers, but the proof of their existence only came around in the papers of Liouvilles in 1844 and 1851. The number was the first important mathematical constant to be proven transcendental and was done so by Charles Hermite in 1873. The techniques Hermite used influenced many future mathematical works including the first proof of being transcendental by Ferdinand von Lindemann; also used in the creation of the Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem. Further work on transcendental numbers involving can be still seen today. Mathematicians knowis a transcendental number, but as of yet have not been able to prove this. 4. Conclusion: Overall, the main objective of this paper was to give an account of the irrationality of. This has been achieved and with it we have been able to see the progress from the first discovery of irrational numbers by the Pythagoreans of Ancient Greek, through to the work covered on Eulers number. References: Webpage Resources: Cook, Z. (2000), Irrational Numbers, The Guide to Life, The Universe and Everything, BBC [Online]. Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A455852, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. OConnor, J.J and Robertson, E.F. (1999), Theodorus of Cyrene [Online]. Available: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Theodorus.html, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. OConnor, J.J and Robertson, E.F. (1999), Eudoxus of Cnidus [Online]. Available: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Eudoxus.html, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. OConnor, J.J and Robertson, E.F. (2001), The number e, Number Theory [Online]. Available: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/e.html, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Russel, D. (2002), Hippasus Expelled!, Irrational Pythagoreans [Online]. Available: http://math.about.com/library/blpyth.htm, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Sondow, J and Weisstein, E.W. e. MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource [Online]. Available: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Weisstein, E.W. Irrational Number, MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource [Online]. Available: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/IrrationalNumber.html, [Accessed: 6th January]. Yee, A.J. (2010), e, Mathematical Constants Billions of Digits [Online]. Available: http://www.numberworld.org/digits/E/, [Accessed 6th January 2011]. Zongju, L. Shuxue Lishi Diangu (Historical Stories in Mathematics), Chiu Chang Publishing Company [Online]. Available: http://db.math.ust.hk/articles/calculus/e_calculus.htm, [Accessed 6th January 2011]. Arithmetic Sequences and Series, Arizona State University [Online]. Available: http://fym.la.asu.edu/~tturner/MAT_117_online/SequenceAndSeries/Geometric_Sequences.htm, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Online PDF Resources: Collins, DC. Continued Fractions, [Online]. Available: http://www-math.mit.edu/phase2/UJM/vol1/COLLIN~1.PDF, [Accessed 6th January 2011]. Conrad, K. (2005), Irrationality of, [Online]. Available: http://www.math.uconn.edu/~kconrad/math121/121piande.pdf, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Field, B. (2010), Irrational and Transcendental Numbers, page 23 [Online]. Available: http://maths.dur.ac.uk/Ug/projects/library/CM3/0910/CM3_BenField.pdf, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Sandifer, E. (2006), Who proved e is irrational?, How Euler Did it [Online]. Available: http://www.maa.org/editorial/euler/How%20Euler%20Did%20It%2028%20e%20is%20irrational.pdf [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Online Video Resources: Adams, C, Garrity, T and Burger, E. (2006), Pi verses e, The Mathematical Association of America [Online]. Available: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whpAX30vjoE, [Accessed: 6th January 2011] Delaware, R. A Proof e is irrational, Proof, University of Missouri [Online]. Available: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FtIL7nGgDNM, [Accessed: 6th January 2011]. Book Resources: Aigner, M and Ziegler, G.M. Proofs from THE BOOK, Third Edition, [Berlin: Springer, 2004]. Dorrie, H and Translated by Antin, D. 100 Great Problems of Elementary Mathematics, THERE HISTORY AND SOLUTION, [New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1965]. Sandifer, C.E. The early mathematics of Leonhard Euler, [USA: The Mathematical Association of America (Incorporated), 2007].

How Factors Perpetuate Violent Crimes Against Women Criminology Essay

How Factors Perpetuate Violent Crimes Against Women Criminology Essay This essay will examine how individual, social, and cultural factors cause and perpetuate violent crimes against women. These three elements have created a gendered inverse power relation with in society that permeates into a multiplicity of social phenomenon and in fact has been the primary factors in constructing the order of power with in society. Through individual, social, and cultural factors, power maximization has become increasingly more complex with in human civilizations. These complexities are due to a number of different social factors that influence humans on an individual and collective scale. This essay is a brief composition summarizing male aggression against female victims, particularly sexual violence and physical assaults, that attempt to reinforce the inverse power relation between the two genders. First, a brief background from a constructionist perspective will be presented to convince the reader of the severity of sexual violence and physical assaults. Then t his essay will explore individual, social, and cultural theories that attempt to explain the causes of violent crimes against women. Finally, this essay will argue that when there is genuine equality between females and males, gender crime will decrease. Within the social sciences, especially with statistical reporting, there is much controversy on the frequency and severity of this almost one-way street in gender violence. According to Harway and ONeil (1999, p. 5) approximately three to four million women are victims of gender violence each year in the United States. However, because the majority of female  sexual assault victims know their assailants, the victim is often too scared or embarrassed to report the crime and thus the likelihood of prosecution decreases (Jones 2006, p. 443). Statistics reflect only crimes reported to the police. So therefore, Harway and ONeils (1999, p. 5) approximation of three to four million female victims a year may be an underestimate. One study even suggests that fewer than 30% of [rape] crimes are reported to the police (Rennison 2009). Prior to the 1970s, the law required substantial evidence of an alleged rape in corroboration with a convincing testimony because of the common belief that wome n often falsely reported being sexually  assaulted as a form of retribution against a man. Although the law has changed and this belief is not as common in todays society, sexual  assault victims often feel stigmatized by the thought of not having enough proof to convict an assailant, leaving them to feel embarrassed about the possibility of having a testimony rejected in court (Rennison 2009). Also prior to the 1970s feminist movement, gender inequalities were much more overt and explicit and it falsely asserted that males are superior to females (Henslin J. 2006, pp. 264-247). This paradigm has constructed a social relationship between females and males in every aspect of life that can still be identified today. That is because it has encapsulated all social institutions, including politics, civil life, and economics, among others. Patriarchy, a society in which authority is vested in males, is a near universal human phenomenon that develops adversarial relationships between genders (Kottak 1997, p. 241). These patriarchic societies allow for the socialization of a distorted gender-role that has historically resulted in gender oppression, denial of basic human rights, and crime against women (White Haines 2008, p. 108). It can, therefore, be concluded that because patriarchy has become a norm in society, sexism and inverse power relations among the genders are, for the most part, imperceptible and near universal (ed. Cunneen 2008, pp. 291-302). Anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists have widely agreed that there is substantial evidence from proto-humans and other primates that male sexual coercion and female resistance to it suggest that sexual conflicts underlie patriarchy (Smuts 1995, pp. 1-32).  With this in mind, it is evident that adversarial relationships between genders are deeply rooted into human biology, human evolutionary past, and is reflected in the contemporary construct of culture. Although this may be true, genetics and evolutionary processes alone do not dictate human choice. However, genetics and evolutionary processes have universally constructed culture, which in turn impose norms on how humans interact with each other, which includes sexual violence and physical assaults (Smuts 1995, pp. 1-32). The manner in which culture has been constructed and the common patterns of behavior in society is a major cause of criminal sexual conduct, overarching all other theoretical explanations. The adversarial relationship between genders is extremely complex and multiple levels of explanations are necessary to link developmental and biological characteristics, personalities, sub-cultural variations, and economics, social, political, and community dimensions (Miller 1996, p. 208). Although it is important to examine this social problem from multiple theoretical perspectives, because of the brevity of this essay, I will only elaborate on constructionism, feminism, and social learning theory. Feminist sociologists have frequently used constructivism, symbolic interactionism and conflict theory to explain violence against women. Feminism fundamentally argues that there is a structural and institutional division between genders, including unequal pay, education, and legal and political inequalities, among others. Interactionist feminists argue that men are socialized to display strength and virility but because there is an inverse power relation among the genders, men turn violent against women (Henslin 2006, p. 273-274). Research has supported this theory by explaining that aggressive men who seek power dominance accept the stereotypes that characterize women as timid and passive, which make them an ideal target (White Haines 2008, p. 124). Feminists that have used conflict theory to explain criminal sexual conduct argue that because men are losing dominate power in society, some men turn violently against women as a way to reassert their declining power (Henslin 2006, p. 273-274). While other feminists use conflict theory to explain that, the structural system of a society and its norms reflect the interests and values of the powerful elite, which are primarily men (White Haines 2008, p. 91). Because these norms favor patriarchy, male intra-group coalition is maintained, causing out-group enmity and prevents women from obtaining an equal social position. Therefore, crimes that target females are the result of social and cultural patterns of maintaining that inverse power relation between the genders (ed. Cunneen 2008, pp.291-302). This fallaciously reinforces the stereotype that women cannot achieve positions of power and are easy targets. Social learning theory assumes that deviant behavior is acquired through new knowledge or through observation of others behaviors, preferences, or values (Ellis 1989; Akers, R. 2009). Social learning theory also examines reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral and environmental determinants (Bandura 1977, vii). Many proponents of this theory argue that learning is greatly influenced by the people whom an individual decides to differentially associate with, regardless if the interaction occurs directly or indirectly, because people tend to imitate others. This is especially true when there are little or no social consequences (Ellis 1989; Akers, R. 2009). Male aggression against women is thought to be sustained through various forms of intermittent reinforcement from various sources. For example, family members and peers, an individuals culture and subculture, and the mass media may all contribute by teaching methods of expressing aggression, which was then followed by li ttle or no social stigmatization (Ellis 1989, pp. 12-14). A sexual aggressor, therefore, may associate sex and violence by learning from sources such as violent pornography and then attempt to model those rape scenes or other acts of violence against women and then expect little or no consequences (Ellis 1989, pp. 12-14). This paper has thus far provided a brief over-view of social constructionist, feminist, and social learning theory perspectives. Now, this paper will describe the social impacts and social responses to violence against women. Many of the points that will be presented will come from the said theories to further substantiate their position when dealing with violence against women. Social responses from feminists have particularly been a strong voice against female victimization. Gendered crimes have an extensive array of social impacts and consequences, which includes reinforcing male dominance in society, gender inequalities and stratification, and generational consequences, among others. From this authors perspective, the definition of violent crime against women, such as rape and physical assault, is legal in that it is a violation of a semi-universal federal state law and it is natural because it is a violation of human consciousness and basic human rights. As a response to the global phenomenon of gendered crimes, the legal etymology of violence against women has changed dramatically over time from different nations to different states (Fulcher, Alesha, Emily 2008). For example, prior to the feminist movement in the 1970s, in all U.S. states, laws exempted a husband from being prosecuted for forcing their spouse to have sex against their will. Modern laws now include sexual assault and spousal abuse, regardless of who the assailant and victim is (Fulcher, et al. 2008). The United Nations (1993) has defined violence against women as, any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. This, in a very general sense, characterizes the contemporary consensus of the global society on the issue of violence against women. These positive changes, however, have not been met with widespread positive consequences. As mentioned earlier, some feminist theorists argue that because men are losing dominate power in society, some men turn violently against women as a way to reassert their declining power (Henslin 2006, p. 273-274). In fact, ONeil and Harway (1999) claim that recent changes in gender equality have produced a fear in some men that the natural order of society is being repressed. These men defend what they think is a defining quality of manhood through verbal aggression and violence in an attempt to preserve their natural right over women. Patriarchal values and beliefs about male dominance and female subordination reinforce a gender inverse power relation that permeates into a multiplicity of social phenomenon. The World Health Organization (2009) has concluded Violence against women is a major public health problem and a violation of human rights. When aggressive men violate women to maintain their sexist advantage women may display eating disorders, depression, passivity, submission, feelings of inferiority, dependence, and sacrificing personal needs for others (Nutt 1999, pp. 117-134). These feeling restrict women from seeking help and prevent them from leaving an abusive relationship. As the aggressive-submissive behaviors continue, women internalize oppression, which results in mental, sexual, reproductive, and maternal health problems (Nutt 1999, pp. 117-134; The World Health Organization 2009). These feelings also restrict women from taking risks, for instance academic achievements, career progression, asking for a salary increase, and socialization. These feelings perpetuate the problem because of the continued dependence on an abusive spouse (Nutt 1999, pp. 117-134). However, there is a strong association between status inconsistency, status incompatibility, and gendered abuse. Thus, a woman may increase her chances of abuse if she obtains greater occupational, academic, or financial achievements than her male counterpart does. Some men believe that a successful woman has usurped their natural dominant position within the family and so they attempt to reassert their dominance by using violence or coercion (Gelles 1999 pp. 36-48). So therefore, some men will continue to be violence, regardless if a woman is successful or submissive. Since the 1970s, the academic community has valuably contributed to appropriate response and prevention methods to decreasing mens violence against women. However, because of the sensitivity and deeply rooted nature of patriarchy and sexism, it is rather difficult to significantly minimize criminal sexual and abusive conduct. There is a rather long list of prevention methods suggested by the academic community and to be most effective they must all work in corroboration with each other. These methods include, but are not limited to: deinstitutionalization of patriarchy (Marin Russo 1999, pp. 18-35); academic, employment, financial equality for women (Nutt 1999, pp. 117-134); examination of how police handle domestic crime (Radford, Stanko 1989); examination of how medical and psychological practitioners handle treatment (Feder L. 1999); education of young children (O Neil Harway 1999 pp. 207-241); governments legal response (Ferraro 1989, pp. 155-184; Office of the status of women 1995); and the strengthening of women-women social collaboration (Silverstein 1999, pp. 81-83). This essay will briefly cover the deinstitutionalization of patriarchy, education of school-aged children, and governments legal response in more detail. As mentioned earlier, patriarchal values underpin all criminal sexual and abusive conduct, in so much that it may seem to some to be a part of everyday life. Eliminating male violence against females requires the elimination of a culture that establishes authority in males and prevents equal authority in females. O Neil and Harway (1999, p. 240) suggests that the old masculine paradigm can be replaced with new values, such as healthy emotionality, non-competitive relationships, empathy for others, friendships, and new concepts of power. Strengthening alliances between women and men will help both genders take responsibility for their actions and resist the ways of the old paradigm. Because violence against women is a societal problem that influences everyone, community consultation, combined with discursive democracy and a cross-government approach, can be an effective method to target specific communal problems by reducing gender-based violence. Public discussion and debate are an indispensable method to raise awareness of the scale of the problem within the community. This will also build confidence in women that this issue is being addressed and dealt with proactively within their community (O Neil and Harway 1999, pp. 238-240). One technique the community consultation program can implement is designing school programs that educate children on how interpersonal violence occurs, its consequences, and prevention. These children may learn how to counter current gender stereotypes portrayed in the media and pop-culture. To encourage diversity, the community consultation program should seek out the opinions and advise from school-aged children (O Neil and Harway 1999, pp. 238-240). Governments should be engage with all sectors of society to minimize criminal sexual conduct and violence against women, which includes providing information, community grants and medical care for victims, being involved in community engagement and specific social projects, and conduct legislative reforms that support gender equality. The British government has exerting a program that compels all governmental administrations into action in efforts to prevent violence against women (HM Government 2009). One of the programs preventive methods includes special training and services so that police, prosecutors, courts, protective services and intervention programs are able to work together to reduce violence against women. Another aspect of the program is to establish a sexual assault referral center in every police station that can provide medical care, counseling, and gather forensic evidence. This model also includes efforts to reduce the demand for prostitution and overall make publi c space safer for women. It is vitally necessary that all governments implement federal and state programs, similar to this one, in attempt to reduce violence against women on a national and international scale. Only a collective effort will be successful. As social scientists continue to provide information and explanations for male aggression and violence against female victims, the more people will accept that there is a genuine equality between females and males. As there is a growing concern and awareness for this issue, more community interventions will be created and government legal changes and policy initiatives will continue to address the problem more affectively. As a result, sexual violence, physical assaults, and psychological abuse against women should degrees. This essay has provided a brief overview from multiple theoretical perspectives on the causation of male aggression and violence against female victims. It has also examined historical through contemporary responses and impacts of female victimization. Then this essay introduced a contemporary case study from Britain that has utilized specific prevention methods. The reoccurring theme has emphasized that only a collective effort among academics, community members, professionals, and the government will provide a successful outcome in preventing male violence against women.